‘My life has been permeated and held together by one idea and one goal: namely to penetrate into the secret of the personality.’ C.G. Jung
Sensation
Sensation refers to our immediate experience of the objective world, a process that takes place without any kind of evaluation of the experience. Sensation perceives objects as they are - realistically and concretely. It fails to consider context, implications, meanings or alternative interpretations, but instead attempts to represent, factually and in detail, the information that is available to the senses.
Intuition
Intuition refers to a deeper perception of inherent possibilities and inner meanings. Intuitive perception ignores the details and focuses instead upon the general context or atmosphere. It perceives (without clear evidence or proof) the direction in which things are moving, the subtle inner relationships and underlying processes involved, or the latent potentialities of a situation. Intuition never directly reflects reality but actively, creatively, insightfully and imaginatively adds meaning by reading things into the situation that are not immediately apparent to a purely objective observer.
Thinking
Thinking is a mode of evaluation that is concerned with the truth or falsity of experience. It is based upon the intellectual comprehension of things and, in particular, of their conceptual interrelationships. It is a rational, systematic process that seeks to understand reality through analysis and logical inference.
Feeling
Feeling is an affective, sentimental function. It involves judging the value of things or having an opinion about them on the basis of our likes and dislikes. Experiences are therefore evaluated in terms of good and bad, pleasant or unpleasant, acceptable or unacceptable.
The conflict between being scientific and being seen as a mystic was the dichotomy which haunted Jung. Jung created a psychological typological map which became a tool for locating an individual’s propensity in relation to the conscious functioning of the psyche. This psychological system containing dimensions of decision-making equipment –the functions are embedded in the area of the psyche which Jung termed a ‘critical apparatus’. The individual contains all four functions, which are expressed through an attitude. It is based upon these functions that individuals are categorised into types. It is through his work on Psychological Types that Jung has quantified his theory and found an analytic approach to the recognition of the conscious attributes. As Jung points out in Memories, Dreams, Reflections, ‘every judgement made by an individual is conditioned by his personality type and that every point of view is necessarily relative’. Jung recognised that he had ‘a need to define the ways in which [his] outlook differed from Freud and Adler’s’. He was intrigued that within comparable environments, differing approaches to similar events and interactions became apparent. It was primarily through his work with his clients that he became aware of the disparities in the use of language, comprehension, internalisation of concepts and responses to external stimuli that encouraged him to search for a reason for these differences.
The polarity of the functions was crucial to Jung’s work which was a further refinement to the profile of the attitudes of the introvert and extravert. The first polar functions were ‘the designation of thinking and feeling’. Jung stated, ‘just as all energy proceeds from opposition, so the psyche too possesses its inner polarity, this being the indisputable prerequisite for its aliveness’. It is the conflict of opposites in terms of the ‘ego/self’, ‘conscious/unconscious’, ‘thinking/feeling’, ‘intuition/sensation’, ‘rational/irrational’, ‘superior/inferior’ and ‘eros/logos’, that is rudimentary to Jung’s perception of the path to individuation. As Humbert tells us, ‘the human subject is actualized by means of an inner polarity – that is, by means of the paradoxical coordination of the conscious and unconscious centres.’ It is the continual conflict and disparity between the two opposing attitudes and functions that represents ‘the transcendent function of opposites’; that is to say, the individual’s ability to become conscious of an unconscious attitude and thus be open to change. Jung called this swing from one extreme position to its opposite ‘enantiodromia.’ It is through the recognition of the structure of this polarity that conscious attention can be given to aspects of our internal psychological mechanism – that is, our ‘attitude’ and ‘superior function’ – and by such recognition evaluate our inter-action internally, individually, externally, collectively and socially. The recognition of polarity also leads us to realise the opposite of our superior function by default being the ‘inferior function’, which, by Jung’s definition, unveils an aspect of our unconscious. Toni Wolff, Jung’s constant companion, enabled the definition of the sensation and intuitive functions, which became fundamental to his proposition of the four functions.
All four functions have confusingly familiar terms, the first of which is ‘verstand’ thinking. This is not intelligence, which, ‘like stupidity is not a function, but a modality’, but is rather ‘when [the] life of an individual is mainly governed by reflective thinking so that every important action proceeds, or is intended to proceed, from intellectually considered motives’. The aim is to assess and assimilate information in a detached and impersonal fashion. The thinking type sees the world objectively, impersonally and dispassionately, (Jung stated that men were more often of this type than women) and his process involves assessing situations through impartial information and fact, rather than through the feelings that may accompany them. His intention is to be accurate, truthful, discursive and dependent on the intellect and knowledge. The thinking function would encourage an aloof, tempered, verbally adept, and logical attitude. Jung points out in psychological types that the thinking function ‘presents for observation thoughts, conclusions, reflections, as well as actions, affects, valuations and perceptions of an intellectual nature, or at least the material is deeply dependent on intellectual premises.’
The opposite function of thinking is feeling or ‘Gefuhl’, which is a kind of judgement, but differs from intellectual judgement, and as such is more of a female quality, according to Jung. It is not a more caring function, but is based a subjective, emotional interpretation of the world. It is a decision-making system which relies on personal values based on experience. The feeling function type evaluates according to their emotional needs, either in accord with the company they keep or based upon their own considerations. They can hide their personal needs in order to please the external environment. Harmony plays a large part in determining their behaviour and decision-making. The interconnection between emotion and the object is the function. The evaluation of the situation differs ‘from intellectual judgement in that its aim is not to establish conceptual relations, but to set up a subjective criterion of acceptance or rejection.’ Thinking and feeling are rational functions, ‘those which are decisively influenced by reflection’, whereas the following functions of sensation and intuition are irrational, and therefore ‘beyond reason, something therefore, not grounded in reason’. They reside in the realm beyond the rational, which can never be proved empirically. Sensation, or ‘Empfindung’, or ‘fonction du reel’ ‘is the psychological function that mediates the perception of a physical stimulus’; those aspects that are interpreted through our senses. Toni Wolff helped Jung ‘identify, define, and even name some of the concepts within his analytic system; the ‘sensations’ function’ being one. The sensation type is in total opposition to the intuitive. He relies on sensory experiences which enables personal validity to his decision making about which Jung remarks that with this type his ‘whole psychology is oriented by instinct and sensation.’ The sensation function tells one that something is there; that it exists. Sensation types are attentive to perception, are aware of detail and scrutinise an object. They are focused on the here and now. They look to the minute detail rather than the bigger picture – what a thing is, and not what it could be. They will deflate the imagination of an intuitive by asking reality-based questions. The remaining function is intuition, or ‘Einfall’, which is how the Germans describe concepts which occur unexpectedly. ‘It is,’ according to Jung,’ a kind of instinctive apprehension, no matter of what content.’ Intuition has no specific area of existence or quantifiable method of evaluation; it happens like a chemical reaction when and if the indefinable processes are all co-ordinated. It can be seen as a flight of the imagination, a vision of the future, or an instinct defying empiricism. Intuition is an occurrence which presents itself whole and complete, without our being able to explain or discover how this content came into existence. ‘It seems to be very mysterious, and you know I am “very mystical”’, states Jung. ‘I distinguish these four functions from one another because they cannot be related or reduced to one another’.
Table 1
These four functions comprise the accepted quaternity of the psyche. As Jung stated, ‘That there are four is a matter of empirical fact’, and ‘my attitude towards this is that the idea of four functions is an archetypal model for looking at things, and that it has the advantage – and disadvantage – of all scientific models’. To note a few: Aristotle determined the four causes, Empedocles confirmed the four elements, Galen the four temperaments, and Heidegger’s concept of the fourfold structure. Jung states that, ‘no-one can dispense with any of the four functions; they are inherent to ego-consciousness.’ Jung continues to affirm his use of four, which ‘came to represent the totality of the personality within the process of individuation’. Jung saw the quaternity of the functions as a symbol of completeness, ‘while the four or the eight-rayed circle represents wholeness, as such, as an existing entity.’
Jung’s foremost discovery was the attitude through which the functions were expressed. He and Schmidt discussed their differences for many years. These attitudes Jung recognised as Extraversion and Introversion, defined as being where unconscious attention goes to or comes from, depending upon ‘displacement of the accent of value.’ The essence of Introversion or Extraversion is connected to the libido attached to the object. The introverted attitude has withdrawn libido from the external object. The extraverted attitude has a ‘positive movement of subjective interest towards the object.’ However, Storr concludes that ‘whilst the dichotomy of extraversion versus introversion has proved valuable and continues to stimulate research, the quaternity of the four functions has been discarded by all except the most dedicated Jungians.’ Freud’s definition of libido is ‘as a measure of processes and transformations occurring in the field of sexual excitation.’ Whereas Jung’s definition describes ‘this “magical power”’ and ‘psychic energy’, by which he meant ‘the intensity of the psychic process,’ ‘which is closer to that of a form of life-energy, neutral in character.’ Libido is generated towards an attitude that Jung says is ‘determined from birth’ and cannot be changed without what Jung termed a total change of one’s ‘inner construction.’ As Jung states, ‘from an energetic standpoint a function is a manifestation of libido, which likewise remains constant in principle, in specific form or manifestation of physical energy.’
Jung also pointed out that introversion and extraversion were not character traits but mechanisms. Extraversion and introversion also affect the function and the interpretation of the functions within the framework of the individual. ‘In the first case (extravert) the object works like a magnet upon the tendencies of the subject; it determines the subject to a large extent and even alienates him from himself.’ ‘If a man thinks, feels, acts and actually lives in a way that is directly correlated with the objective conditions and their demands, he is extravert’. Jung personified them as the brothers Prometheus and Epithemeus. As personifications of attitudes, these gods emphasise the introvert as being the purveyor of ill deeds and the extravert as the saviour. Jung also aligns himself with Blake, who categorised man into two classes – prolific and devouring – implying that the introverted attitude was devouring, hence negative, and the extravert prolific and by intent positive. However, Jung states, hysteria is a far more typical neurosis of the extravert type.’ These attitudes influence the four functions and as such differentiate the scale of expression of the function. Hence, every function has to be understood in relation to the attitude through which it is expressed.
Each of the four functions is expressed through extraversion or introversion, and hence becomes a type. Inherent within this typological structure are all four functions one of which is always superior. The second (the auxiliary) and in combination with the third they complement and refine the superior function. Whilst the fourth function is named the inferior function, it is least developed, most often neglected and by remaining in the unconscious as can overwhelm the superior function. ‘One of these functions is chosen as the dominant and most helpful function to the individual and is often assessed as such from childhood.’ For the definition of the ‘primary function,’ Jung relied on Gross’s interpretation as the ‘actual performance of the cell, namely, the production of a positive psychic process.’ This is the ‘habitual attitude’ from which, when it predominates, a ‘typical attitude is produced.’ Whilst the ‘superior’ or ‘primary’ function with an ‘attitude’ can be paralleled with what Jung called the ‘persona’, the ‘inferior function’ relates to the ‘shadow.’ ‘One can say that the inferior function always makes the bridge to the unconscious.’ Jung calls it infantile and tyrannical. ‘With individuation, there must be an attempt to make all four functions conscious in the course of time – in other words, to differentiate them as much as possible. One must wonder whether that which prevents any of the four functions from becoming overpowering is the archetype of the ‘self’ or whether it is some other means of control. Also, the matrix of the four-fold structure, which can be compared to the mandala, is a potentially useful tool for containing the psyche during the therapeutic process.
According to Jung, ‘there are at least eight clearly distinguishable types.’ Jung aims to distinguish the types, beginning with the extraverted thinking type, which he says ‘makes all his activities dependent on intellectual conclusions, which in the last resort are always oriented by objective data, whether these be external facts or generally accepted ideas.’ This type has no subjective response to his interpretation of the world and it is within the framework of the ideal that he structures his perceptions. It is his deliberations upon ‘justice and truth’ that define his discernment. As a positive aspect, he encourages new ideas and advances empirical knowledge. Essentially, ‘feeling is repressed’ in this type. Jung also believed that ‘conscious altruism’ may only be a form of selfishness and advancement of the self, and not a true desire to help another. Each act has within it an ulterior motive of
promoting the self. Also, because there is a lack of feeling, the attitude is less personal. In this formula, the inferior function will be introverted feelings, which will be expressed through ‘oversensitivity’, making him sharp in tone, acrimonious, aggressive… a sultry and resentful character. The ‘truth must be trotted out,’and this is the only way the extravert thinker will accept being wrong. The counter-position is the female. Jung believed that women could think, but do not have ‘sui generic.’ Von Franz believes that unconscious and undeveloped feeling is barbaric and absolute, and therefore a sometimes hidden destructive fanaticism can suddenly burst out.
The main criteria for the introverted thinking type is subjectivity: ‘it begins with the subject and leads back to the subject.’ Although it formulates questions and theories, its attitude is one of inhibition. Facts are not of primary importance to this type; what matters is how the fact is expanded and rendered. It sees value in taking the fact and making it into a cohesive concept. This is a dangerous modus operandi, because the fact can be taken and distorted into fantasy, thus ignoring the truth. He is strongly influenced by truth, but not in the objective; rather, in its subjective principal constituents. However, as Jung explains, this type is difficult to describe, since ‘everything about him tends to disappear and get concealed’. Jung launches a tirade against this type, particularly in the context of his personal relationships, where he engages with his inferior extravert feeling function, showing ‘the abysmal stupidity of the man.’ To the other person he may seem ‘prickly, unapproachable and arrogant.’ There appear to be few positive attributes, except that his concepts are developed into primordial images that must be grounded in fact in order for him to relate to his contemporaries. For Von Franz, this type will show their extravert feeling side as an explosion of ‘lava from a volcano.’ Once flowing, everything in its way is ravaged.
The extraverted feeling type has subordinated itself entirely to the influence of the object.
Should he dislike an object, this extravert feeling type will relate to the object and its relation to the atmosphere it creates, or to the intention behind the object being in that particular place. In fact, the object or person as an interplay of the dynamics of the whole environment is taken into account. Von Franz states that they are ‘usually the ones who sacrifice themselves for others.’As Jung states, it is this type which creates harmony in a social environment. However, the thinking function has a disturbing influence on the feeling function. ‘He dislikes thinking, which is his inferior function, particularly about philosophical principles, or abstract or basic principles of life.’ They can also reel off lists of platitudes and incessantly quote lines from famous writers to hide their own weakness. It is interesting to note that Jung has found the extravert feeling type and introvert feeling type mostly amongst women: ‘As feeling is more characteristic of feminine psychology than thinking, the most pronounced feeling types are to be found amongst women.’ Rowland points out that ‘Jung’s misogynist and culturally stereotyped views of women can be criticised’, and questions whether ‘the perennial feminist question of whether gender is an innate essence or whether it is wholly culturally constructed’ can also be applied to Jung’s interpretation of the feeling function. It is the qualities of ‘harmony’ and ‘rapport’ contained in the environment to which the extravert feeling type is oriented. In the extreme, this type, which has repressed thinking and intensified feeling, can suffer from either moods and further from ‘hysteria.’ With these definitions in mind, Wolff, a long-term companion and partner to Jung, broadened the understanding of the female psyche by presenting a configuration of the ‘Structural Forms of the Feminine Psyche.’ Perhaps this was in order to rectify Jung’s simplistic definition of women and possibly to further demonstrate that there are many types of women who deliberate over their role in society and choose not to take the conventional matriarchal stance, thus explaining the relationship she assumed with Jung and possibly demonstrating an effort to seek acknowledgement of her role in helping Jung to define many aspects of the psychological types.
The introverted feeling type is found ‘principally among women.’ On the negative side, Jung shows the external perception that ‘they are silent, inaccessible, and hard to understand; often they hide behind a childish or banal mask, and their temperament is inclined to melancholy.’ However, their depth of emotions, we are told, ‘may break out in some extravagant form and lead to an astounding act of an almost heroic character.’ Yet, Von Franz tells us that she believed Freud was of this type and that his inferior function of extraverted thinking had a tendency to be overwhelmed by information. Such people tend to take a high moral stance, setting the standards for others in their company. They tend to be in the background of any event, although they may be very valuable to the organisation. Jung, however, believed that ‘thinking of this type is infantile, archaic, negative’. The psychoidal manifestation of the extreme expression of the inferior functions can be one of ‘exhaustion leading to anaemia and its sequelae.’
For the extraverted sensation type, the ‘majority appear to be men.’ ‘Sensation for him is a concrete expression of life – it is simply real life lived to the full.’ They identify with their ‘careers’ and are ‘matter of fact’, seeing only what is today, and doing things the way they should be done. They have ‘no souls’ and vehemently argue against it. To them, what comes from inside seems morbid and suspect.’ Their inferior function of introverted intuition is totally repressed unless there is an illness or accident that can force it to be reawakened, thus transforming the ‘scientist’ into a ‘philosopher.’ The introverted sensation type has to conceal his lack of logic and has great difficulty in revealing himself. This type ‘apprehends the background of the physical world rather than its surface.’ They have a difficult and obtruse manner, though of this they are quite unaware and did not intend it.’
The extravert intuitive type is ‘always seeking out new possibilities, stable conditions suffocate him’ and ‘his capacity to inspire courage or to kindle enthusiasm for anything new is unrivalled, although he may already have dropped it by the morrow.’ ‘Stable conditions stifle him.’ The inferior function of introverted sensation is repressed because this one ‘is the greatest obstacle.’ The introverted intuitive has a ‘reality which is not physical but psychic.’ It can also produce ‘the mystical dreamer and seer on the one hand, the artist and the crank on the other.’ The spiritual, metaphysical and transcendent personalities are to be
found in this type. The opposite function of extroverted sensation ‘strives to reach the highest pitch of actuality.’ This function can become a prison for the intuitive, who is constantly seeking new ways of doing things.
Table 2
The types are integral to the conscious mechanism of assessment and perception of the world, people and things. At a later date, Jung added to his psychological types, designating two other compartments for the conscious and unconscious spheres, namely the ectopsychic and the endopsychic spheres. Jung filed the functions within the ectopsychic sphere. The ectopsychic sphere is the bonding of the internal conscious process combined with information, data and facts coming from the outside. The endopsyche is beyond consciousness and lies in the dark sphere, the ‘shadow-world’ where part of the ego lies.
Jung divided this realm into areas, namely memory and ‘subjective components of conscious functions.’ Jung demonstrated this function by describing the personal associations that are applied to external information, people, objects or events. The ‘superior function’ is seated in the ectopsychic sphere, and the least used function – the inferior – is seated in the endopsychic sphere as an aspect of the unconscious. However, Jung found the third component of the endopsychic function very difficult to explain. It is the emotion that affects events in our lives when something in that dark unconscious terrain has taken hold of oneself. ‘You are possessed, you are no longer yourself, and your control is decreased practically to zero.’ The fourth function of this sphere is ‘invasion’. This can be understood as what happens when the ‘self’ has left the person and they are taken over by a spirit which Jung saw as part of the primitive phenomena. It appears that this primitive realm is the abyss into which Jung fell during his dark time after the break from Freud, where he tells us, ‘I let myself drop. Suddenly it was as though the ground literally gave way beneath my feet, and I plunged down into dark depths.’ It is within the third component and the fourth sphere that the inferior function hibernates. The inferior function may have been developed in childhood, when a family need demanded the promotion of a less preferred function. ‘One of the main reasons one develops a persona is so as not to expose inferiorities, especially the inferiorities of the fourth function.’ Von Franz tells us it is this conflict between the persona and the relegated superior function that is one of the causes of depression. Von Franz also suggests that this typology may be used in the therapeutic process in order to uncover the differentiation between the persona and the self, as well as the internal need that promotes one function over another. However, it is stated that one cannot move from the superior function to the inferior directly, but must assimilate the second and third functions in that order. It is the assimilation into the ego of the undeveloped part of himself, the ‘inferior function’ that lives between the ego and the unconscious, that makes the ‘realisation of the whole person’ possible.
Jung saw the psychological type structure as a compass for the development of wholeness of the individual. It is within that framework that one can assess oneself and develop other functions. This aspect of his psychological topography is one that can be harnessed in the profile of the individual. However, one must bear in mind the mystery of the uniqueness of the individual which as Jung states, ‘every individual is an exception to the rule. Hence one can never give a description of a type, no matter how complete, that would apply to more than one individual, despite the fact that in some ways it aptly characterises thousands of others. Conformity is one side of man, uniqueness is the other.’
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Samuels A. Jung and the Post-Jungians – Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985 p88
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